2.7: From Republic to Empire

• History
• Middelbare school
• vwo
• Leerjaar 1

The Time of Greeks and Romans

2.7: From Republic to Empire

Word Duty

• emperor: a monarch who rules an empire. (Dutch: keizer)
• the Gallic Wars: the wars (58-51 BC) in which Julius Caesar conquered Gaul and defeated their leader Vercingetorix.
• tribe: a group of people, often of related families, who live together, sharing the same language, culture, and history (Dutch: stam)
• civil war: a war between two groups of people living in the same country. (Dutch: burgeroorlog)
• dictator: a ruler with absolute power, but who is not a monarch.
• alliance:  when two or more parties make an agreement to help each other they form an alliance (Dutch: bondgenootschap). To ally is the verb (Dutch: een bondje sluiten), and an ally (plural: allies) is the noun (bondgenoot / bondgenoten)
• Augustus: title that the senate gave to Octavian. (Dutch: de Verhevene)
• Pax Romana: "Roman Peace". A period of relative peace within the Roman empire during the
•  first and second century AD.
• primary source: a source that was created in the time of the events it describes.
• secondary source: a source that was created after the events it describes.

KEY WORDS

What you will learn in 

this lesson

• How Caesar conquered Gaul
• How Caesar started a civil war
• Why Caesar was murdered
• How the republic changed into a monarchy again
• How Augustus became the first Roman emperor
• Where our word "keizer" comes from

people in this lesson

Julius Caesar

consul / dictator

Rome

Cleopatra

queen

Egypt

Octavian Caesar

a.k.a "Augustus"

1st emperor

Rome

Vercingetorix

chieftain

Gaul

Mark Anthony

Caesar's friend

Rome

Important dates in this lesson:

100 BC:       Julius Caesar born

59 BC:         Caesar becomes consul

58 - 51 BC:  the Gallic Wars

52 BC:         Battle of Alesia

49 BC:         Caesar crosses the Rubicon

48 - 45 BC:  Civil Wars

45 BC:         Caesar declares himself "dictator of Rome"

44 BC:         Caesar is murdered.

32 - 30 BC   Civil Wars

31 BC:         Battle of Actium

27 BC:         Octavian is given the title "Augustus". Official end of the Republic and start of                          the Empire

14 AD:         Death of Augustus. Tiberius Caesar becomes 2nd emperor.

This is a sculpture of emperor Augustus.

Augustus was the first emperor of the Roman empire.  An emperor is a monarch.

That means that the Roman Republic did not last forever.

After about 500 years of being a republic, Rome turned into a monarchy again. How did this happen? 

First, we must study Augustus' uncle: Julius Caesar.

king or emperor? And what is the difference?

Simply put: a king rules a country.

En emperor rules and empire.

So when a country conquers other countries and becomes an empire, it is possible that the king becomes an emperor.

A king and an emperor are both monarchs.

A monarch is not elected by the people. A monarchy is hereditary (erfelijk), so the next monarch is mostly the eldest son.

Facts First!

This is Julius Caesar. 

If you ask people who Julius Caesar was, most people 

reply: "a Roman emperor". WRONG!

Julius Caesar lived in the time of the Roman Republic. That means that Rome was not ruled by a monarch.

Julius Caesar was NEVER a monarch: not a king, nor an emperor.

Why do so many people make this mistake?

That is because our word "keizer" comes from the name Caesar. The Romans pronounced Caesar, a Latin name, as "kaisar". 

So the Dutch word "keizer", the German "kaiser", even the Russian word "czar" all come from Caesar.

Why does our word "keizer" come from a man who wasn't even an emperor?

The answer to that is given at the end of this lesson.

remember: it's Caesar, not Ceasar

1. which statement is correct?
I: Caesar's name was pronounced as "kaisar" by the Romans
II: Caesar became a king, but he was never an emperor.

1. Both are correct
2. Both are wrong
3. Only I is correct
4. Only II is correct

Julius Caesar

Julius Caesar was born in Rome in the year 100 BC. He was born to a patrician family that could trace their bloodlines back to the founding of Rome. His parents were well-off, but they weren't rich by Roman standards. His full name was Gaius Julius Caesar. 

In 59 BC Caesar was elected consul, the highest office in the Republic. This was nice, but he wanted more. To become even more powerful Caesar knew he needed to win military glory. After his year as consul he accepted the offer by the senate to become the commander of the Roman army in Gaul.

Gaul was the area which is today's France, Belgium, Switzerland and northern Italy. This is the land of the Gauls, or Celts (in Dutch: Galliërs of Kelten).

As you can see on the map, Rome only ruled the south  of Gaul (the green part). That was about to change.

The Gauls rebelled against Rome and Caesar spent the next 9 years fighting the Gauls. Caesar's soldiers won many victories and they loved Caesar. After all, a succesful commander could distribute a lot of war booty between his men.

The soldiers became more loyal to Caesar than to the Senate in Rome.

Caesar in Gaul

When Caesar arrived in (the Roman part of) Gaul, he was given control of four legions, about 20,000 professional soldiers. 

Caesar decided to expand the Roman empire and started the Gallic Wars that would last from 58 BC until 51 BC. Gaul was populated by dozens of tribes, the largest of which numbered about 200,000 people. Within four years he managed to capture almost all of Gaul and moved the border from the Roman Empire to the Rhine. So he even conquered part of the Netherlands!

Clash between the Roman army (bottom) and Gallic or Celtic warriors. The Gauls did not have a professional army like the Romans. They also lacked the superior training and equipment that the Roman legionaries had.

2. which statement is correct?
I: Caesar was entitled to become a consul because he was a patrician member of the senate
II: As a consul, Caesar had absolute power for one year.

1. Both are correct
2. Both are wrong
3. Only I is correct
4. Only II is correct

The Gallic Wars

Vercingetorix was the leader of the Gauls. He united many Gallic tribes and convinced them to fight against Caesar together. Only then could they defeat the powerful Roman army.

Vercingetorix' stronghold was a fortified mountain called Alesia. He felt safe on top of this mountain and behind the thick walls. He believed the Romans could never take it.

When Caesar arrived at Alesia he ordered his soldiers to build two walls around the mountain. A huge task. Vercingetorix was now surrounded and trapped. All Caesar needed to do is wait until the food and water ran out in Alesia. After several weeks Vercingetorix' army broke out of the fortress but it was defeated by the Romans. 

Vercingetorix surrendered to Caesar. Gaul was conquered and Caesar was in charge of it.

Caesar ordered his soldiers to build a wall around the mountain of Alesia. This way, vercingetorix was trapped inside his fortress on top of the mountain.

Vercingetorix Throws Down His Arms at the Feet of Julius Caesar, painting made in 1899, by Lionel Noel Royer

3. The Gauls lived in tribes. Why was this an advantage for Caesar's war?

4. Looking at the previous pictures, can you explain why Caesar built two walls around Alesia?

Some people in Rome were afraid of Caesar's power.

In 49 BC Caesar and his army set out for Rome, where he intended to be elected consul again.

The senate ordered Caesar to come without his army. Caesar refused. He crossed the Rubicon river (the border between Gaul and Italy) and entered Italy with his army.

The senate declared that Caesar was now an enemy of Rome. This marked the start of a civil war.

With his army Caesar defeated all his enemies (mostly senators) and chased them across the empire, even in Egypt. Here he fell in love with Cleopatra, sister of the pharaoh.

Back in Rome he was now the only ruler. He allowed the Senate to remain, but he did not want to share his power with the senators.

 

primary and secondary sources

We already learned about primary and secondary sources. Just to remind you:

A primary source is a source that was created in the time of the events it describes.

A secondary source is a source that was created after the events it describes.

(a secondary source often uses primary sources for its information)

This book was written BY Julius Caesar himself, during the Gallic Wars. Therefor it is a primary source.

This is a modern book, written by a modern author ABOUT Julius Caesar. Therefor it is a secondary source.

During his time in Gaul, Caesar kept a diary. This diary is called "the Gallic War", or in Latin: "commentarii de bello gallico".  The words in this book are written by Caesar himself, more than 2000 years ago. So it is a primary source. Even if the original text is TRANSLATED into modern Dutch, and printed in a modern book: it still remains a primary source!!

5. Which statement is correct?
I: Your history textbook is a primary source
II: Anne Frank's diary is a secondary source

1. Both are correct
2. Both are wrong
3. Only I is correct
4. Only II is correct

6a. Look at both book covers (left = A, right = B)
Which one is the primary and which one is
the secondary source?
Explain your answer.

6b. Explain this statement: secondary sources often
use primary sources

Some people in Rome were afraid of Caesar's power.

In 49 BC Caesar and his army set out for Rome, where he intended to be elected consul again.

The senate ordered Caesar to come without his army. Caesar refused. He crossed the Rubicon river (the border between Gaul and Italy) and entered Italy with his army.

The senate declared that Caesar was now an enemy of Rome. This marked the start of a civil war.

With his army Caesar defeated all his enemies (mostly senators) and chased them across the empire, even in Egypt. Here he fell in love with Cleopatra, sister of the pharaoh.

Back in Rome he was now the only ruler. He allowed the Senate to remain, but he did not want to share his power with the senators.

 

Caesar disobeys the senate.

Caesar was now rich and powerful.

Rich, because as an army general, he could keep all the war booty for himself.

Powerful, because he let his soldiers share in his glory and wealth. He had given his soldiers glorious victories and he even shared his booty with them. His soldiers loved him for that. This made Caesar powerful, because he now commanded four legions that were more loyal to him than to the senate in Rome.

Some people in Rome were becoming afraid of Caesar's growing power.

Caesar, Vercingetorix and the battle of Alesia have been pictured in several Asterix albums.

The Civil Wars

In 49 BC Caesar and his armies set out for Rome, where he intended to be elected consul again.

The senate ordered Caesar to come without his army. 

Caesar refused. He crossed the Rubicon river (the border between Gaul and Italy) and entered Italy with his legions.

The senate declared that Caesar was now an enemy of Rome. This marked the start of a Civil War.

With his army Caesar defeated all his enemies in Italy (mostly senators) and chased them across the empire, even in Egypt. Here he fell in love with Cleopatra, sister of the pharaoh.

In 45 BC Caesar had beaten all his enemies. The Civil War was over and he returned to Rome.

Caesar crosses the Rubicon. This was a decisive moment, because now Caesar openly defied the orders from the senate to leave his troops in Gaul. There was no turning back for Caesar anymore. He had two choices: be killed as an enemy of Rome, or become the ruler of Rome. 

Caesar and Cleopatra as seen in a Hollywood movie.

7. The senate ordered Caesar to leave his soldiers in Gaul. Caesar wanted to take his army to Rome.

Who were the soldiers supposed to listen to?

1. to Caesar, he was their general
2. to the consul and the senate. They were the Roman government

8a. Today, "crossing the Rubicon" means: to make a decisive decision. Can you explain this?

8b. Why do you think Caesar's soldiers listened to him instead of to the senate?

9a. What is a civil war?

1. a war between two or more countries
2. a war between two or more different groups within one country
3. a war that is fought mainly on land
4. a war that is fought mainly at sea

9b. This civil war was between

1. The senate and the Roman army
2. Caesar and the Gauls
3. Caesar and his army
4. Caesar and the senate

Some people in Rome were afraid of Caesar's power.

In 49 BC Caesar and his army set out for Rome, where he intended to be elected consul again.

The senate ordered Caesar to come without his army. Caesar refused. He crossed the Rubicon river (the border between Gaul and Italy) and entered Italy with his army.

The senate declared that Caesar was now an enemy of Rome. This marked the start of a civil war.

With his army Caesar defeated all his enemies (mostly senators) and chased them across the empire, even in Egypt. Here he fell in love with Cleopatra, sister of the pharaoh.

Back in Rome he was now the only ruler. He allowed the Senate to remain, but he did not want to share his power with the senators.

 

Caesar assassinated

Back in Rome he was now the only ruler. He allowed the Senate to remain, but he did not want to share his power with the senators.

He made himself "dictator", a ruler with absolute power.

To many senators, "dictator" sounded much like "monarch".

They believed that Caesar wanted to become a king and turn the republic into a monarchy.

Outraged, some 60 senators met secretly. They planned to assassinate (murder) Caesar. The leader of the group was Brutus, the so-called friend of Caesar.

On the "ides" (the 15th) of March 44 BC Caesar was murdered in the senate.

Brutus and his men believed that they had saved the Republic. But many Romans were outraged by Caesar's murder. Caesar was well-liked because he had improved peoples' lives. He had lowered taxes and had given many people land to farm. 

The senators encircle Julius Caesar in a painting by 19th-century artist Carl Theodor von Piloty.

10. In 44 BC Caesar became a dictator for life.
Was there a difference between the power of a dictator for
life and the power of a Roman King? Explain your answer.

11. Why did Brutus and his fellow senators assassinate Caesar?

1. to save the monarchy
2. to save the republic
3. to save the senate
4. to save themselves

12. Augustus was the first emperor.
An emperor is a monarch. Why do you think Augustus did not want to be called "emperor"?

After Caesar's death: more Civil Wars 

After Caesar's death, Rome still remained a republic. Caesar had no son that could succeed him. But he did have a nephew: Octavian Caesar, who was 19 years old when his uncle was murdered. Octavian found out that he had been adopted by Caesar as his heir. Octavian began to gather political support in the Roman Senate as well as military support in the form of Caesar's legions. He soon was a formidable power in the city and was elected to the position of consul.

His rival was Mark Anthony, a friend of Julius Caesar. Anthony wanted to become a dictator. He clashed with Octavian and a new Civil War broke out. 

Mark Antony allied himself with Queen Cleopatra of Egypt. At the sea battle of Actium, Octavian's troops defeated Antony and Cleopatra's armies. Upon their defeat, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide.

the sea battle of Actium, in which octivian's fleet defeated the fleet of Mark Anthony and Cleopatra

After learning about the defeat (and probable death) of her lover Mark Anthony at the Battle of Actium, Cleopatra committed suicide by letter herself be bitten by a poisonous snake.

Painting: The Suicide of Cleopatra, by Domenico Riccio (1516-1567).

13. Why was the war between Octavian and Mark Anthony a
"civil war"?

Some people in Rome were afraid of Caesar's power.

In 49 BC Caesar and his army set out for Rome, where he intended to be elected consul again.

The senate ordered Caesar to come without his army. Caesar refused. He crossed the Rubicon river (the border between Gaul and Italy) and entered Italy with his army.

The senate declared that Caesar was now an enemy of Rome. This marked the start of a civil war.

With his army Caesar defeated all his enemies (mostly senators) and chased them across the empire, even in Egypt. Here he fell in love with Cleopatra, sister of the pharaoh.

Back in Rome he was now the only ruler. He allowed the Senate to remain, but he did not want to share his power with the senators.

 

The end of the Republic, the birth of the Empire.

With Marc Antony dead Octavian was the most powerful man in Rome. In 27 BC the Senate gave him the title of Augustus (which means: the sublime) and he would be known by this name for the rest of his life. He became the ruler and emperor of Rome. The basic government of the republic, such as the senate and other officials, was still in place, but the emperor had the ultimate power.

When Augustus became emperor, Rome had experienced many years of civil war. He brought peace to the land and began to rebuild much of the city and the empire. He built many roads, buildings, bridges, and government buildings. He also strengthened the army and conquered much of the land around the Mediterranean Sea. Under Augustus' rule, Rome once again experienced peace and prosperity.

The next 200 years were years of peace for the Roman Empire. This period is often called the Pax Romana, which means "peace of Rome". Augustus is often given credit for establishing such a long period of peace.

Monarchy

Republic

14.

hereditary

dictator

dynasty

2 consuls

king / emperor

senate

elections

Some people in Rome were afraid of Caesar's power.

In 49 BC Caesar and his army set out for Rome, where he intended to be elected consul again.

The senate ordered Caesar to come without his army. Caesar refused. He crossed the Rubicon river (the border between Gaul and Italy) and entered Italy with his army.

The senate declared that Caesar was now an enemy of Rome. This marked the start of a civil war.

With his army Caesar defeated all his enemies (mostly senators) and chased them across the empire, even in Egypt. Here he fell in love with Cleopatra, sister of the pharaoh.

Back in Rome he was now the only ruler. He allowed the Senate to remain, but he did not want to share his power with the senators.

 

The name Caesar became the word for "emperor".

When Augustus became Rome's first emperor, the word "emperor", or "keizer", did not exist. Augustus did not call himself king or emperor, but used the title Princeps Civitatis, which meant "First Citizen".

But to honour his uncle Julius he put Caesar's name before his own title. So everone called him Caesar Augustus.

Augustus ruled up until his death in 14 AD. His step-son, Tiberius, became the second emperor of Rome.

Tiberius also took on Caesar's name to honor him, so everybody called him: Caesar Tiberius. 

The next emperors did the same: Caesar Claudius, Caesar Nero, Caesar Trajan, etc.

Eventually, the name Caesar became a title, meaning emperor. And we still see that in our word 'keizer" today.

The Roman historian Suetonius, who lived in the 2nd century AD, wrote a book about 12 successive Roman rulers; Julius Caesar, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, Vespasian, Titus and Domitian. 

15. Explain why so many people still think that Julius Caesar was a Roman emperor.

Interesting facts about Julius Caesar and Augustus

• 
  
• Caesar was once kidnapped by pirates while still a young man. He joked with them that he would have them executed once he was free. They laughed, but Caesar had the last laugh when he later captured them and had them crucified.
• The month of July is named after Julius Caesar. Prior to this the month was called Quintilis, which means "the fifth month".
• The month of August is named after Augustus. Prior to this the month was called Sextilis, which means "the sixth month".
• Augustus rebuilt much of the city of Rome. He said on his deathbed that "I found a Rome of bricks; I leave to you one of marble".

Painting depicting the pirates, after being crucified. 

Videos from these tv series used in this lesson:

congratulations