Academic Writing

• Engels
• Middelbare school
• vwo
• Leerjaar 5,6

Academic Writing

Language requirements for your essay

1. Formal language
2. Clear sentences
3. Objective language 

Academic Writing

• Choose the words which seem most suitable to the purpose and audience. 
• In academic writing we use formal language.

Goal: learn a range of appropriate language for expressing your opinions and referring to those of others.

Academic Writing

• In academic writing we use formal language.

What is formal language? 

What are the features of formal language? 

When I look at the situation in emergency wards, with many staff leaving, it's hard not to worry about how many doctors will be available to treat patients in the future.

1. Formal
2. Informal

When considering the situation in emergency wards, with increasingly low staff retention rates, there are concerns about the capacity of hospitals to maintain adequate doctor to patient ratios.

1. Formal
2. Informal

It's so obvious that people were given jobs just because they were male or female. I don't think that is an acceptable approach and is even against the law.

1. Formal
2. Informal

It appears that in a number of instances jobs were assigned on the basis of gender. Given the current anti-discrimination laws, this raises serious concerns.

1. Formal
2. Informal

Verb phrases:

English often has two (or more) choices between

1. A verb which is part of a phrase (often verb + preposition)
2. A verb which is one word only. 

• Often in everyday English, the verb + preposition is used (eg. speak up, give up, write down)
• For written academic style, the preferred choice is a single verb wherever possible.
  

Systems analysts can help out managers in many different ways.

This program was set up to improve access to medical care.

Researchers have been looking into this problem for 15 years now.

This issue was brought up during the coroner's inquest.

Researchers have found out that this drug has serious side effects.

investigate

assist

raise

discover

establish

Compare the following sentences

When I look at the situation in emergency wards, with many staff leaving, it's hard not to worry about how many doctors will be available to treat patients in the future.

  

When considering the situation in emergency wards, with increasingly low staff retention rates, there are concerns about the capacity of hospitals to maintain adequate doctor to patient ratios.

In formal writing:

• minimise the use of the personal 'I' and 'you' in the text.
• use formal verbs, and fewer verb phrases (verb + preposition)
• use impersonal expressions: there are…, this raises
  
• use more nouns than verbs: concerns, rather than to worry
  
• avoid emotional expressions: it's so obvious -> it appears 
• aim for concise, often abstract expression, gender, rather than male or female.
  

2. Clear sentences

Sentence length is important for clarity in writing: 

• Too short -> writing is 'childish'
• Too long -> reader won't be able to follow

Example:

Two canine cadavers with orthopedic abnormalities were identified which included a first dog that had an unusual deformity secondary to premature closure of the distal ulnar physis and a second dog that had a hypertrophic nonunion of the femur, and the radius and femur of both dogs were harvested and cleaned of soft tissues.

Two canine cadavers with orthopedic abnormalities were identified which included a first dog that had an unusual deformity secondary to premature closure of the distal ulnar physis and a second dog that had a hypertrophic nonunion of the femur, and the radius and femur of both dogs were harvested and cleaned of soft tissues.

What does 'which' refer to?

1. canine cadavers
2. orthopedic abnormalities
3. something not in the sentence
4. unclear

Two canine cadavers with orthopedic abnormalities were identified which included a first dog that had an unusual deformity secondary to premature closure of the distal ulnar physis and a second dog that had a hypertrophic nonunion of the femur, and the radius and femur of both dogs were harvested and cleaned of soft tissues.

What is the purpose of the second 'and'?

1. logical connection
2. addition
3. no clear purpose
4. don't know

Better: 

Two canine cadavers with orthopedic abnormalities were identified. The first dog had an unusual deformity secondary to premature closure of the distal ulnar physis. The second, a hypertrophic nonunion of the femur. The radius and femur of both dogs were harvested and cleaned of soft tissues.

• 46 words, 4 sentences, no issues with clarity

3. Objective language

Objective & Impersonal

Objective & Impersonal

Objective -> unbiased, based on facts and evidence and is not influenced by personal feelings.

Impersonal -> do not refer to yourself as the performer of actions.

Avoiding personal pronouns:

• Using passive voice:

 ‘We administered the questionnaire...’ (active voice), 

‘The questionnaire was administered...’ (passive voice)

Avoiding personal pronouns:

• Using third person: 

‘I discovered that…’ becomes ‘Research reveals that…’ 

‘We can see that….’ becomes ‘It is evident that…’

Avoiding personal pronouns:

• Making things rather than people the subject of sentences: 

‘I show ...’ becomes ‘The report shows ...’ 

‘I interpret the results as ...’ becomes ‘The results indicate ...’

Objective - 'hedging'

Consider the differences between the two sentences below:

1. Diet was an important factor in the health of the respondents.
   
2. The evidence suggests that diet was an important factor in the health of the respondents.
   

Which is more objective?

1. Diet was an important factor in the health of the respondents.
2. The evidence suggests that diet was an important factor in the health of the respondents.

Objective - 'hedging'

1. Diet was an important factor in the health of the respondents.

• The first sentence presents the findings with absolute certainty. 
• Such a claim would need to be supported by very strong evidence. 

Objective - 'hedging'

1. The evidence suggests that diet was an important factor in the health of the respondents.

• The second sentence is a hedged claim.
• Indicating that the evidence is not sufficient to make an outright claim, or that it could allow for other interpretations.
  

Objective - generalisations

Compare the two:

1. Chinese are Buddhist. They go to the temple five times a year. Buddhists live simple lives and give money to charity.
   
2. Many Chinese are Buddhist. Practicing Buddhists go to the temple about five times a year, depending on how devout they are. Generally, Buddhists try to live simple lives and to give money to charity when they can.
   

Objective - generalisations

• Many Chinese are Buddhist. Practicing Buddhists go to the temple about five times a year, depending on how devout they are. Generally, Buddhists try to live simple lives and to give money to charity when they can.
  

The second statement uses qualifiers (such as generally) and quantifiers (such as many) to avoid over-generalisation.  

Notice how this paints a more nuanced and realistic picture for the reader.

Academic writing

Significantly different to spoken language!

Academic language is objective and formal language that is easily understandable.

What we want to see: 

• Passive sentences
• Appropriate verb phrases
• Logical structure
• 'Hedging'

How you write something is just as important as what you write!